Introduction
The rise in natural disasters over the past 25 years has experienced a steady incremental growth, with potentially more disasters in the past five years alone than in the whole of the previous decade, according to the International Disaster Database (Coyle and Meier 2009, 7). The evidence suggests that the majority of countries being affected by such disasters are those being classified with low human development by the United Nations. The United Nations define their standards in this way: “The most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of living and to be able to participate in the life of the community” (United Nations Website). The majority of these countries being hit with natural disasters have little to know way to participate with the globe at large because of their lack of technological resources, which in contemporary society includes fairly advanced technological access. So when a disaster strikes, it is often left up to the NGO’s assisting the relief effort to set up and man communications technology. Because of this, communications technology has become a vital part of any major disaster relief effort. “New technologies and new uses of existing technology present an important opportunity for improving how people can prepare for, respond to, and recover from major disasters” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 9). As seen in the Haitian earthquake that struck in January of 2010, technology is beginning to take on an even wider array of abilities to aid in an a total relief effort. Overall, the history of technology has brought about some recent developments which are beneficial to both direct relief response, such as work done through Ushahidi, as well as an indirect relief response, such as fund or awareness raising through social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter. Communications technology has become a major player in the relief response to any natural disaster.
History of Communication Technology
In general, the “media is now a major actor in the wider group of institutions to which humanitarian organizations relate, although neither humanitarian crises nor their reporting is new to the post-Cold War era” (Minear 2002, 141). Minear goes on to say that “the massive responses to the high-profile humanitarian emergencies of the 1990’s coincided with a technological revolution in the news media” (Minear 2002, 141). The development of the television set as an advancement from radio enabled a visual representation of crises around the world, as well as reframed the problem of what a neighbor now looks like (Myers 2010). The new form of technology stepped in an became an intermediary and reduced the time between the natural disaster and action or response time (Myers 2010). “It was in the years immediately preceding WWII that the television industry we know today was born” (Federal Communications Commission 2005). Television, along with its predecessor the radio, continued the form of one-to-many communication, meaning that one person could deliver a message to many people at one time. The television remained a vital source of information up until the growing popularity of the World Wide Web, but the television isn’t dead. “The visions for television remain as grand today as they were in the beginning. Pundits still say the frontier remains limitless and predict the marriage of digital technologies, broadband networks, and television will finally allow television to reach its greatest potential of being an interactive medium” (Federal Communications Commission 2005). However, with the development of the internet in the 1980’s, we are experiencing completely new forms of communication. “One important change is a shift from one-to-many forms of communication, such as television and radio, to many-to-many forms of communication such as social networking and crowdsourcing websites, that is changing the way in which information is delivered and exchanged” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 7).
Recent Developments
“Communication advancements present an opportunity for humanitarian agencies to harness modern technology to communicate more effectively with communities affected by disasters and to allow members of these communities to communicate with each other and the outside world” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 7). There are many areas of growth in the field of technological communications, such as the mobile phone and global wireless internet. These both have contributed in important ways to the aid of natural disasters, but it is important to develop a relief effort simultaneously with a well-thought out warning system.
A good majority of work has been done in the development of early warning systems. These systems which started as far back as 1949 with the Tsunami Warning Center, based in Hawaii, have played an integral role in the development of technology. “Recent progress on early warning systems owes much of the profound impact of the 26 December 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, one of the deadliest natural disasters to date” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 15). However, weather-related natural disasters are generally the most covered worldwide when compared to other types of natural disasters (Coyle and Meier 2009, 15). “The Indian Ocean tsunami was a turning point in exposing the devastating effect of weaknesses in early warning systems. Some of these gaps are illustrated by Coyle and Meier in their article New Technologies in Emergencies and Conflict. They include:
the need for further standardization of communications in emergency situations – such as a global standard for cell broadcast technologies, for example;
the need to develop standards applicable to existing and future systems for delivery of early warnings or alerts;
the need for interoperability between public networks and networks dedicated to emergency communications; and
a need for priority access by emergency services personnel to communications (Coyle and Meier 2009, 18).
While early warning systems play a large part in making sure a community is ready for a potential threat, the “increasingly widespread use of mobile and online technologies present new potential information lifelines in times of crisis” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 23).
A large portion of this information is now being distributed through “crowdsourcing”, a term coined by journalist Jeff Howe to describe tapping into a the talent of a crowd. Essentially anyone with access can weigh in on the problem by providing potential solutions (Coyle and Meier 2009, 23). A good example of crowdsourcing is the new technology called “Ushahidi” which will be discussed in detail later in this paper. While information shared through crowdsourcing can be quite helpful in using multiple people to bring about an effective solution, there are some concerns about the reliability and legitimacy of information that is presented using this method (Coyle and Meier 2009, 23). “The tension between wider sharing of information and confidence in its reliability is heightened by new technologies” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 23). With the dissemination of information at the tip of a finger, questions begin to arise about where the information is coming from and how reliable it is. This is especially evident in many-to-many forms of communication because the original message can easily become distorted passing through the ears and eyes and down to the fingers of many different people.
How it’s Being Used to Aid Relief
Media and communications technology has brought a lot more attention to the aid relief in natural disasters. Through recent developments in technology, like crowdsourcing and early warning systems, the internet and mobile phones are rapidly becoming the most used tools for information dissemination. Using skilled and lay workers, tools are being developed for the benefit of those affected by natural disasters as well as those who are representing NGO’s and working on the front lines.
Social Networking Websites
“Social networking has provided a huge change in the realm of technology. With the advancements in widespread communications, messages are received a lot faster and have a greater reach. Growth has been particularly strong in the . . . uptake of social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 7). Over all, “the most popular social networking site globally is Facebook”, and you can find people in almost every country using it (Coyle and Meier 2009, 12). Facebook is different from Twitter, a different social networking site, which is “concentrated in the developed world”, but it “is also experiencing remarkable growth” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 12). Through Facebook and Twitter, people create an online profile where they are able to link up with others and post pictures, videos, as well as share their likes and dislikes and interact with information posted by others. Twitter is a bit more limited to the sharing of smaller bits of information at one time. They have a 140 character limit for every update, but in those updates people will often put links to pictures or videos they’ve taken and uploaded them on line.
Despite the different forms of technology, the dissemination of information through social networking is unprecedented. During the days after the Haitian earthquake, “A big chunk of GlobalGiving’s donations came through Twitter. Oxfam America officials were surprised by the volume of money it received through Facebook” (Kinzie 2010).Those with considerable influence and pull on these sites are using their notoriety for good as well. “Celebrities including Ashton Kutcher, Lenny Kravitz, Oprah Winfrey and Coldplay’s lead singer, Chris Martin, urged people to give, with messages that spread through social networking sites” (Kinzie 2010). Those who also have various forms of technical skills have been tapped through social networking sites to play a more active role in relief efforts. During the hours after the Pacific tsunami struck American Samoa, “The increased use of social media and the use of the World Wide Web among Pacific communities significantly helped PacificEyeWitness overcome traditional barriers to information. We found savvy Pacific online media junkies on Bebo, MySpace, Facebook and other lesser known PI forums sharing information. Some of that information helped us help others” (Pacific EyeWitness 2010).
Despite the benefit that social networking sites have the potential to aid in the relief effort, there are some things to be aware of. Some are weary that the ability to produce such mass information will bring about a lack of true commitment to a relief effort. “‘Slacktivism’ has become the popular pejorative to describe the various internet petitions, well-intentioned Facebook groups and copious retweets intended to sow the seeds of change or bring help where it’s needed” (Cashmore 2010). For the most part, the claims Cashmore makes in his CNN article entitled “Haiti quake relief: How technology helps” are quite true. Cashmore claims that “Even tech optimists . . . are forced to concede that while online fundraising campaigns can rack up thousands of tweets in an afternoon, persuading those same participants to open their wallets remains a challenge” (Cashmore 2010). However, he does note that the Haiti earthquake response may have marked the change for the recent trend of “slacktivism” for the better. “While the scale of the disaster and harrowing images in the media fuel a desire to help in any way we can, it’s technology that has made the process efficient and enabled tens of thousands of individuals to take action toward a common goal” (Cashmore 2010).
Computer Programming
“Hundreds of tech volunteers spurred to action by Haiti’s killer quake are adding a new dimension to disaster relief, developing new tools and services for first responders and the public in an unprecedented effort” (Associated Press 2010). Prior to the use of modern technology, people with overly-technical jobs like developers were having a hard time becoming directly involved in any relief effort. But the Haiti earthquake relief response really highlighted the potential capability of people working on the front lines of technology, but not on the front line of the national relief effort. “Volunteers have built and refined software for tracking missing people, mapping the disaster area and enabling urgent cell phone text messing (Associated Press, 2010). Not only that, they are taking all forms of technology into account. “Tim Schwartz, a 28-year-old artist and programmer in San Diego, feared upon learning of the disaster that, with an array of social networking sites active, crucial information about Haitian quake victims would ‘go everywhere on the Internet and it would be very hard to actually find people — and get back to their loved ones’” (Associated Press 2010). So Schwartz did what he does best and gathered all his programming friends to establish www.haitianquake.com which is a lost and found web site for Haitians in and out of the country to be assisted in locating missing friends and family members (Associated Press 2010). Their efforts were directed in have a centralized place for families to upload and download pictures of missing people, hoping to find their loved ones. Later, other big names like CNN and the New York Times were launching similar efforts, along with PersonFinder which was similar software developed during Hurricane Katrina (Associated Press 2010). Most agree that PersonFinder is the best software in this area and advocate that all organizations come to a general consensus on what they use in order to avoid confusion and miscommunication (Associated Press 2010).
Computer programmers have also created a mobile phone networking system that allowed Haitian victims to text to their U.S. based relatives that they were safe. The text messages are “geotagged by volunteers including Haitian-American members of the New York City-based Service Employees International Union” (Associated Press 2010). This system is being marketed through Haitian radio broadcast channels.
Mobile Phones
“The growth in the use of mobile phones has been one of the most remarkable features of the last decade “ (Coyle and Meier 2009, 12). Not only that, mobile phones have become a huge player in the world of aid relief. According to Coyle and Meier, “the mobile phone played a key role in the aftermath of the tsunami” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 16). It was also during the tsunami aid relief that cell phones became tools for fundraising, which gained widespread notoriety with the Haitian earthquake.
The uses for mobile phone were quite limited when it first hit the market, however with the expansion of technology, mobile phones are quickly rising in capabilities to distribute information. “While voice and text messaging are still the most common applications of mobile technology among NGO workers, respondents report using wireless technology in a number of other ways, including photo and video; data collection. or transfer; and multi-media messaging” (Kinkade and Verclas 2008, 6). Other uses include data analysis, inventory management, and mapping (Kinkade and Verclas 2008, 7). While phone lines were down in Chile during their most recent earthquake, families were most able to communicate via Facebook because the 3G global Internet network found was still up and running on most “smart” cell phones. Not only is the use of mobile technology widespread, “Ninety-nine percent of technology users characterize the impact of mobile technology as positive” (Kinkade and Verclas 2008, 6). “Because it [a mobile phone] can quickly and informally disseminate information from person to person, mobile communication is a good medium for information sharing both during and in the aftermath of a disaster” (Kinkade and Verclas 2008, 29). They go on to say that “There is evidence that neither the public nor emergency workers utilize mobile technology to its fullest potential” (Kinkade and Verclas 2008, 29).
One of the recent expansions in mobile technology is the ability to send a text message or SMS message to an automated number and a financial donation will be added to your phone bill to a designated organization, like the American Red Cross or Yele Haiti Foundation, organized by Haitian-American rapper Wyclef Jean. It was noted that his foundation at times was receiving approximately 10,000 texts an hour (Kinzie 2010). As of February 12, 2010 “hundreds of thousands of cell phone users have made $10 donations to the American Red Cross Haiti Relief and Development Fund by sending the world ‘Haiti’ to 90999, raising a record-shattering $32 million in mobile giving for the ongoing relief efforts” (American Red Cross 2010). According to the Frequently Asked Questions on the American Red Cross website, “Convenience, familiarity with text messaging and proliferation of social media may account for some of the reasons why donation through text messaging has seen such a dramatic increase” (American Red Cross Website 2010). They also say that, “By accepting donations through the mobile sphere, the Red Cross can reach a wider audience during times of disaster when support is immediately. Supporters are not limited to writing a check and putting their gift in the mail nor having immediate computer access and entering in credit card information. The donation can be made instantly from a mobile phone” (American Red Cross Website 2010). In an article by the Washington Post, they cite the American Red Cross as having received more than $5 million through text message just two days after the Haiti earthquake had struck (Kinzie 2010).
Ushahidi
“Ushahidi, which means ‘testimony’ in Swahili, is a platform that was initially developed to map reports of violence in Kenya after the post-election fallout at the beginning of 2008” (Ushahidi Website). The entire system was developed by volunteers and within a week, Ushahidi had gone from an idea to live deployment (Ushahidi Website). This system of tracking using SMS’s or the Internet “serves as a prototype and a lesson for what can be done by combining crisis information from citizen-generated reports, media and NGO’s and mashing that data up with geographical mapping tools” (Ushahidi Website). The main goal of the organization is to create a system that facilitates early warning systems and helps to bring a visual representation of the needs in response and recovery (Ushahidi Website). Mobile phones are the driving force behind the technology of this system, allowing anyone with one to gather via SMS, email or web and create a visual map or timeline. This information has been used across the globe, starting in Kenya but also being utilized in South Africa, the DR Congo, Pakistan, Gaza, India, Sudan, Chile, Haiti, and many more. Some of the highlights of Ushahidi’s current service are
the Cuidemos el Voto mashup to monitor the federal elections of Mexico in 2009, Atlanta Crime Maps which tracking the crime in the Atlanta Metro area, Stop Stockouts which tracks real-time stock depletions at pharmacies n Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, and Zambia, and the Wildlife Trackers campaign which is a citizen-based science project to track the Kenyan Wildlife (Ushahidi Website).
“Traditional humanitarian information management systems are typically closed and controlled. Ushahidi is open and decentralized. Opening the reporting of crisis information to anyone with access to technology presents exciting opportunities and important challenges” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 29). This new way of relief response is able to get the information to the people that need it and fast, because it allows subscribers to receive text message alerts in a specific location (Coyle and Meier 2009, 29). Despite the amazing work that Ushahidi has done in the area of communications technology, they realize their potential limitations and potentially questionable authoritative sources and are actively doing something about it. Ushahidi is also in the process of launching a new project called Swift River that will use validation logic to week out some of the multitudes of information that is collected online during any given crisis (Coyle and Meier 2009, 30).
Conclusion
“A look at the use of communications technology during disaster in recent years shows that while it has played a positive role, its full potential has not yet been realized” (Coyle and Meier 2009, 7). This statement is a fair critique of how technology has aided disaster, as well as how it has the potential to grow even further than were it is now. We have seen the field of technology grow by leaps and bounds just within the half a century. The abilities for technology to grow and expand further than where it is now are incomprehensible at this point. And as the technology itself grows, it is able to be utilized in disaster relief situations in new and unique ways. Through the advancements in mobile phone technology, we have capabilities to track people and situational conflict using GPS mapping and software like Ushahidi. Through social networking websites like Facebook and Twitter, awareness-raising from many-to-many has reach an all time high, and is now beginning to harness new fundraising powers as well. Despite some very real negative criticisms about technology, its involvement in our lives cannot be ignored. It’s abilities can and are being harnessed for working with victims of natural disaster, such as the Haiti earthquake. Not only has technology aided the relief effort of the quake, it has brought about more worldwide awareness in encouraging everyone to become involved. With the ability to help literally at the tip of our fingers now, how could we refuse?